Prehistory
Istanbul became very populated residence around 3000 BC. Some small town governments were established during that period of time. Researches have shown that today’s Sultanahmet square and its surroundings were main residential areas at that time.
They lived in both the Anatolian and European sides of the city. They were nomadic or semi nomadic. They later established a stable life based on fishing, agriculture and cattle growing. For example, Fikirtepe research has discovered that dogs, sheep, goats, cows and pigs were domesticated and that fishing was done as early as 6000 BC. Some tombs and stone tools were found during these excavations.
The Byzanthion Period
The Megarians came into Istanbul from Greece through the Sea of Marmara in 680 BC. They established a colony on the acropolis above the Golden Horn opposite the Greek Colony of Chalcedon, which had been established a few years earlier. The Chalcedon Colony was involved in architecture and referred to as “the Land of the Blind”, possibly because they must have been blind not to see the advantages of setting on the European side of the Bosphorus, which would be much more secure militarily. The Megarians, under the leadership of Byzas, acted according to a Delphic oracle in choosing the site. They were settled in today’s Sarayburnu and the town became to be called Byzantium. It is thought that various Thracian people were living in the area and intermingled with Megarians. Byzantium, through becoming a commercial center and as a result of its being easily defensible, became a powerful, fast growing member of the Greek colonies.
In 513 BC. Byzantine was taken by the Persian leader Darius who had captured Anatolia. The city remained in Persian hands until it was taken by the Spartan general Pausanius in 477 BC. He in turn, set himself up as a tyrant and was driven out by the Athenians and surrendered to the Spartan commander Lysander in 403 after the final defeat of Athens in the Peloponnesian wars.
The city entered an uneasy alliance with King Philip of Macedonia (father of Alexander the Great) during which the city walls were repaired but surrendered without a battle to Alexander the Great in 344 BC. After his death in 323, the city was under the leadership of one of the generals of Alexander the Great, Antigonos, but more or less governed itself.
The city was overcome by hordes of Saxons arriving from the West in 278 BC. and was looted and forced to pay tributes. It was later captured by the allied forces of Rhodes, Pergamum and Bythinia under whose sovereignty the city remained until it was bequeathed to the Roman Empire by the last ruler of Pergamum.
The Macedonia – Roman wars ended in the sovereignty of Rome over the Balkans, Asia minor and Byzantium in 146 BC. and a period of peace ruled for the next 300 years.
Roman Empire
The sovereignty of the Romans over the Byzantine was partially at their own consent. Fed up with being the focus of a long lasting conflict between Bithynia and Macedonia in the 2nd century BC. Byzantium joined with Kyzikos and Rhodos in calling on Rome for aid. It became a subject of the Roman Empire in 146 BC. Formerly self administered, it became a part of the Bithynia – Pontius province, thus maintaining its importance but losing the city-state status it had enjoyed for 700 years.
Sheltered by the Roman administration, Byzantium experienced a 350 years period of relative peace broken only by the Septimus Severus and Pescennius Niger civil war in the 2nd century AD. The Byzantines had supported Pescennius and following his defeat, Septimus wrecked his revenge on the city by massacring many of its inhabitants, burning the city on an even grander scale and Byzantium once again entered a period of relative calm, lasting up until the period of Constantine the Great.
In 330 AD, the Roman Emperor, Constantine I, proclaimed the ancient city of Byzantium as his capital. The newly rebuilt city subsequently became known as Constantinopolis. The imperial city became one on the most prominent political and religious centers in Christendom during the reign of Constantine, who was said to have been baptized as a Christian on his death bed.
Througout the 4th and 5th centuries, the city became a target of attack, especially by Goth and Vizigoth warriors. Attila the Hun besieged Constantinople in 440 and for ten years extracted taxes from its residents. During this period of chaos, sactarian arguments occasionally escalated into riots and civil wars. In spire of civil unrest, Constantinople managed to retain its international reknown. The city’s population exceeded that of Rome, especially after the huge wave of Thracian immigrants in the 5th century. It was during this time that the outlying suburb of Sycae was created (today’s Galata); it grew to accommodate the influx of immigrants and became a significant trading site, connected to the metropolis via a bridge. The Western Roman Empire, on the other hand, was in decline. In 476, the Ostrogoths dethroned Romulus Augustine, the Roman Emperor of the West. Constantinople was soon to become the sole capital of the Roman Empire.
Byzantine Empire
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476, the Eastern Roman Empire of which Constantinople was the capital, became the Byzantine Empire. Thus, Istanbul was transformed from a “Roman City” to a somewhat Orthodox one, with an eastern accent.
The mid-sixth century marked the beginning of an enlightened age for the Byzantine Empire, and thus, for Istanbul. In contrast with his predecessor, who was not even literate, Emperor Justinian I. was an educated and religious man. During his reign the city prospered as an Orthodox Christian capital. St. Sofia’s Church was reconstructed in this period.
However, the plague of 543 killed almost half of the city’s population, disaster followed disaster. Fortunately, the infrastructure built by Emperor Justinian I. had made the city fairly resilient againts manner of catastrophes and wars. The late 7th and 8th centuries became years of siege. In the 7th century, Istanbul was attacked by both Persian and Avars. Later, in the 8th century, Hungarian and Muslim Arabs besieged the city. Russian and Hungarian forces, in the 9th century, also tried to conquer this desirable metropolis.
Meanwhile, sectarian conflicts among Christians had become violent, fueled by the politics of the Emperor who took a decisive position in the matters. The pro/anti – iconography which divided the population bore a tremendous impact, not only on the city, but on the entire empire and on Christian theology in particular. Istanbul’s thriving era was eclipsed by Latin occupation.
In 1204 the city was conquered by the Crusaders and was looted mercilessly. The largest city of the Middle Ages, with a population of nearly 500.000 laid impoverished, and in ruins.
The Latin Invasion
The Emperor Alexius rejoiced at the coming of the first crusaders, hoping to regain lands lost in Malazgirt. The agreement was for the Byzantines to support the crusaders and occupy lands taken from the Muslims. The crusaders didn’t go along with the plan and founded the Eastern Catholic Kingdom in Jordan in 1099. The crusaders were despised by the residents of Istanbul who openly showed their disfavor. Meanwhile, the crusades continued and the fourth crusade ended in the invasion and dividing up Istanbul.
During that period there was a great deal of dissension as to the succession to the throne. The crusaders, realizing their opportunity, entered the Golden Horn with the aid of the Venetian. The attack began on April 10th and the city fell on April 13th. For three days, in an unprecedented example of barbarism, Istanbul was looted and the inhabitants were murdered. Many important structures, including Hagia Sophia were damaged and the books that were hundred years old were burned. Important Byzantine works of art were taken to Europe. The looting became routine and the crusaders joined with the Venetian to divide Byzantium among themselves, founding the Eastern Catholic Empire.
Ottoman Sieges of Istanbul
Ottoman Turks became interested in Istanbul during the 14th century. All residential areas of today’s Istanbul besides Surici (inside the city walls) became the territory of the Ottoman Empire way before the conquest. Ottomans also interfered with the internal affairs of Byzantine Empire during the same period of time. Maneuvering around Istanbul continuously, they were getting prepared for the final cut.
Ottoman armies reached the gates of Istanbul in 1340, but they did not lay a siege. A strong Christian alliance stopped the campaign which was initiated by Sultan Murad I at Catalca.
The first big siege aimed to conquer Istanbul was realized by Sultan Yildirim Bayezid. However, his army did not enter the city as a result of the agreement he made with the emperor. Sultan Yildirim Bayezid influenced Istanbul afterwards,too. He managed to establish a Turkish square, a mosque and a court which gave trial to Turks. He would support the emperors who would take care of Ottoman interests. This was one of the most important factors that affected the conquest of Istanbul by Turks.
The last siege attempt during the reign of Sultan Yildirim Bayezid occurred in 1400. But the Timur problem interfered with this. The siege led by Musa Celebi, son of Sultan Yildirim Bayezid, in 1411 was also unsuccessful. The Emperor, fearful of the success of the Ottoman army, obtained the support of Mehmet Celebi, brother of Musa Celebi, from Bursa and the siege was lifted. Afterwards, during the reign of Celebi Mehmed there were no military campaigns against Istanbul.
The last siege before the conquest occurred during the reign of Sultan Murad II. The strategic planning phase of the siege took a long time and it was very powerful strategic plan. But the siege was more difficult than the previous ones. The siege started on June 15, 1422 by 10,000 cavalry men with the blocking of the roads which connected Istanbul to other cities. Emir Sultan, one of the most powerful spiritual leaders of that time came from Bursa and joined the army with his hundreds of dervishes. That positively affected the soldiers. The attack on August 24th, which Emir Sultan also participated in, was very intense, but not enough toconquer the city. the siege was lifted because of the rebellion of Shehzade Mustafa who was the brother of Sultan Murad II. This left the task of the conquest of Istanbul to the son of Sultan Murad II.
Istanbul Before the Conquest
Prior to the fall of Istanbul to the Ottomans, Byzantium had lost its status as a powerful empire: its land mass holdings had shrunk to the territories of Constantinople, Silivri Castle on the Marmara Shore and several small towns, such as Vize and Misivri. These sites were completely surrounded by Ottomans and the villages just beyond the Constantinople fortresses were left untouched by the Ottomans not because they were strong, but because they were considered insignificant. Constantinople was the target.
The Byzantine emperors had accepted the sovereignty of the Ottomans and were paying tribute taxes to the Ottomans. In reality,then, the Ottomans were dealing not with Byzantine emperors but with minor Tekfurs (Byzantine princes). In essence, then, the domination of Byzantium was not that of an empire and that Constantinople was more a religious center than the sea of an empire. It was the last and the most powerful stronghold of Christendom in the face of Islam and mounting Muslim military forces. To circumvent its fall, the Pope organised a new Crusade.
However, having been stunned by Ottoman attacks, Byzantium’s most debilitating internal problem was exposed : the rift between Orthodox and Catholic Christians. This division led to insufficient assistance from Europe to defend the crippled empire. In a desperate effort to unify the factions, the Emperor and Patriarch gave in, and in 1439 at the Florance Council, knelt down and offered their allegiance to the Catholic Church, who, with the eminent Ottoman thread, put aside their hundred-year-old conflict and differences. The formal celebration of the agreement was to become the subject of mass protests, however, as the people of Constantinople feared European involvement and sought to defray the resurrection of another Latin era.
After the Florence Council agreement, the powerful Crusade that was formed launched an attack on Rumeli in 1443 and 1444. However, the Ottoman victory at Varna was able to stop the tide of invading Crusaders. Varna was also the battle that determined the fate of Constantinople. Now, the conquest of the city became compelling for the young empire, who perceived Constantinople as an ailing element in the heart of Ottoman land. the decisive link between Rumeli and Anatolia spelled the fall of Constantinople and the rise of Istanbul.
The Conquest of Istanbul
Preparation for the conquest of Istanbul started only one year ahead. Huge cannons that were necessary for the siege were molded. In 1452, Rumeli Castle was constructed to control the Bosphorus. A mighty fleet of 16 galleries was formed. The number of the soldiers were doubled. The supply routes to Byzantine were taken under control. An agreement was made with Genoese to keep Galata impartial during the war. In April 1453, the first Ottoman frontier forces were seen in front of Istanbul. The siege was starting.
6 April 1453
Sultan Mehmed pitched his imperial tent by the door of St. Romanus in Topkapi. The same day the city was besieged from the Golden horn to the Marmara Sea from the land.
6-7 April 1453
First cannons were fired. Some of the fortresses in Edirnekapi were destroyed.
9 April 1453
Baltaoglu Suleyman Bey launched the first attack to enter the Golden Horn gulf.
9-10 April 1453
Some of the fortresses on bosphorus were taken. Baltaoglu Suleyman Bey seized the Marmara Islands.
11 April 1453
The big fortress were bombarded by cannon fires. Holes and cracks were opened here and there. Serious destruction inflicted by ceaseless bombardment.
12 April 1453
The Ottoman fleet attacked the ships protecting the Golden Horn. The victory of the Christian ships decreased the morale of the Ottoman army.At the order of Sultan Mehmed, the Byzantine ships were pounded by mortar fire, and one galley was sunk.
18 April 1453
At night, the Sultan gave his first crucial order. The attack lasted 4 hours but it was scattered.
20 April 1453
A naval skirmish took place close to Yenikapi between the Ottoman fleet and 4 Byzantine warships with three supply ships full of food and weapons sent by the Papacy. the Sultan came to the shore himself and ordered Baltaoglu Suleyman Pasha to sink those ships by any means possible. The Ottoman fleet could not stop enemy’s ships which were bigger. With this failure the Ottoman army lost its morale and showed the signs of defeat. Ottoman soldiers started defecting from the army. Soon, the Byzantine Emperor wanted to take advantage of this situation and offered peace.
The offer, supported by famous Vizier Candarli Halil Pasha, was rejected by Sultan Mehmed. The siege and bombardment of the fortresses with cannons continued.
During this chaos and widespread feeling of defeat, a letter from the Sultan’s spiritual teacher Akshemseddin promised good news about the conquest. Encouraged by this spiritual support, Sultan Mehmed escalated the attack and decided to add an element of surprise: the Ottoman fleet anchored in Dolmabahce would be moved to the Golden Horn gulf by land.
22 April 1453
In early hours of the morning, Byzantine Christians were dumbfounded and horrified when they saw Ottoman galleys moving down on the hills of the bay. Seventy ships carried by cows and balanced by hundreds of soldiers via ropes were slid over slipways. by afternoon the ships were inside the well protected bay.
The surprise appearance of the Ottoman fleet in the bay created panic among Byzantine residents on Constantinople. The fortresses on the shore of Golden Horn became a vulnerable spot and some of the Byzantine forces were moved there. This weakened the defense of the land fortresses.
28 April 1453
The attempt to burn the Ottoman ships in the bay was prevented by heavy cannon fire. A bridge was constructed between Ayvansaray and Sutluce to attack the fortresses located on the shore of the bay.
An offer of unconditional surrender was delivered to the Emperor through the Genoese. If he surrendered he could have gone wherever he wanted and the life and property of his people would have been spared. the Emperor rejected this offer.
7 May 1453
A three hour long attack was launched on the stream of Bayrampasa with a 30,000 strong force, but it was failed.
12 May 1453
A thunderous attack made towards the point between Tekfursaray and Edirnekapi was defeated
16 May 1453
When the underground tunnel dug in the direction of Eðrikapi intersected by Byzantinian underground tunnel, an underground skirmish erupted.
The same day, an attempt to cut the sturdy chain blocking the entrance of the bay failed. The following day the attack was repeated, but again ended with failure.
18 May 1453
Ottoman forces launched another attack from the direction of Topkapi, by using a wooden mobile tower. The Byzantine burned the tower at night and emptied the trenches that were filled by Ottomans.
25 May 1453
Sultan Mehmed, sent Isfendiyar Beyoðlu Ismail Bey as an ambassador offering Emperor to surrender for the last time. Accordingto this offer, the Emperor and his followers could take their wealth and go anywhere they wish. The people who decided to stay could keep their belongings and estates. This offer was too rejected.
26 May 1453
According to rumors European countries and especially Hungarians were planning to mobilise their troops to help the Byzantines unless the siege was ended. Upon hearing these rumors, Sultan Mehmed gathered his war council. In the meeting Candarli Halil Pasha and his party defended their previous position, that is, of putting an end to the siege. Sultan Mehmed with his tutor Zaganos Pasha, his teachers Akshemseddin, Molla gurani and Molla Husrev opposed the idea of quitting. They decided to continue the was and Zaganos Pasha was commissioned for preparations.
27 May 1453
The general attack was announced to the Ottoman army.
28 May 1453
The army, spent the day by resting and preparing for the next day’s attack. There was a complete silence among the soldiers. Sultan Mehmed inspected the army and encouraged them for the great attack.
On the other side, a religious ceremony was held in Hagia Sophia Church. the Emperor urged people to participate in the defense. This would be the last Byzantine ceremony.
29 May 1453
Platoons positioned for the assault. Sultan Mehmed gave the order to attack at midnight. Inside Constantinople, while the soldiers positioned for war, people filled the churches.
The Ottoman army launched its final assault accompanied by commemoration of God and beats of drums. The first assault was performed by the infantry and it was followed by Anatolian soldiers. When 300 Anatolian soldiers were martyred, the Yeniceri (Janissaries) started their attack. With the presence of Sultan Mehmed, the Ottoman army was motivated and chest to chest fights started. Meanwhile the young soldier called Ulubatli Hasan who first erected the Ottoman flag on Byzantine land fortresses was martyred. Upon the entrance of the Yeniceri from Belgradkapi front, the Byzantine defense collapsed. Abandoned by his soldiers, the Emperor was killed during street skirmishes. Turkish forces entered from every direction and crushed the Byzantine defense completely. Towards noon Sultan Mehmed entered the city, he had a new name then : Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror. He went directly to Hagia Sophia Church and converted it to mosque.